Talcott Parsons (1902 – 1979) is a well-known American sociologist who devoted most of his life to working on the faculty of Harvard University. One of the most prominent contributor and practitioner of structural functionalism, Parsons gave birth to a universal theory called Action theory, designed for the study of society. Parsons’ theory is based on the methodological principle of voluntarism and the epistemological principle of analytical realism. Through his theory, the sociologist endeavored to set up equilibrium between two key methodological practices, those of the utilitarian-positivist tradition and hermeneutic-idealistic tradition.

Talcott Parsons’ views of the social system were deeply affected by Durkheim’s and Max Weber works. As a result, he combined much of their studies to produce an action theory. He believed that the social order consisted of the actions of individual actors, – participants of some social act. Hence his basic concept was represented by the relations between two individuals dealing with an assortment of options on how to behave, alternatives that are affected and controlled by a set of physical and social aspects. Parsons viewed society as “the interaction of individual actors, that is, takes place under such conditions that it is possible to treat such a process of interaction as a system in the scientific sense and subject it to the same order of theoretical analysis which has been successfully applied to types of systems in other sciences” (Parsons 3).

If simplified and explained in a comparatively primitive manner, Parsons’ theory declares that a social system is made up of a large number of separate actors interrelating with each other under circumstances that can at least be characterized by physical or environmental features, “actors who are motivated in terms of a tendency to the “optimization of gratification” and whose relation to their situations, including each other, is defined and mediated in terms of a system of culturally structured and shared symbols” (Parsons 1). Therefore, social system is only one third of the whole. Complete system of social interactions is made up of social system, personality systems of individual actors and cultural system, each one being independent and indispensible.

Parsons claimed that social roles are created artificially, through the permanent recurrence of this or that behavioral pattern that is formed under the influence of established or institutionalized expectations. Proposing that individuals can perform several diverse roles simultaneously, he than developed a notion, that roles can balance each other while carrying out expected functions to fit in a social order. As a result, some roles are combined in various social structures and institutional formations, such as educational, medical, economic or legal establishments. This phenomenon is practically useful, since it allows society to operate efficiently.

Parson viewed social processes as those occurring under well-structured control. Every change in society is provoked by the need for order and clarity of established roles and expectations. Human nature is disposed to fit into a structure. Action scheme of reference, which is primarily concerned with individual’s orientation in a given situation, is described by Parsons as “the scheme, that is relative to the units of action and interaction, is a relational scheme. It analyzes the structure and processes of the systems build up by the relations of such units to their situations, including other units” (Parsons 1)

According to Parsons, the process of socialization is significant because it serves as an instrument for transmitting and thrusting the conventional standards and morals of society to the individuals belonging to the system. The process is, moreover, encouraged by the positive and negative reinforcement of role performance that does or does not satisfy generally accepted expectations. If social norms and values are not adjusted to the set roles, and stability is not gained, structure may break up and either die, or transfer into a new system.